SOCIOLOGY 101 NOTES "The ultimate weakness of violence is that it is a descending spiral, begetting the very thing it seeks to destroy. Instead of diminishing evil, it multiplies it. Through violence you may murder the liar, but you cannot murder the lie, nor establish the truth. Through violence you may murder the hater, but you do not murder hate. In fact, violence merely increases hate. So it goes. Returning violence for violence multiplies violence, adding deeper darkness to a night already devoid of stars. Darkness cannot drive out darkness; only light can do that. Hate cannot drive out hate: only love can do that." -MLK,Jr. *************************************** CHAPTER 3 NOTES:  Socialization and Human Nature *     what is human nature? *     what does it mean to be human? *     what is socialized? *     are we prisoners of socialization or do we create our own selves? I.    self and emotions -- we learn to be who we are and what is ok or not ok to feel via the process of socialization, that is, what is expected in a given society or group of persons II.    Theories of socialization     A.    Psychoanalytic (Freud)         i.    unconscious mind shapes behavior – identity is relatively fixed at an early age – motivations are internal and mostly unconscious         ii.    id – deep drives (e.g., sexuality); ego – psychological component of “common sense,” balances id and superego; superego – represents standards of society, conflict with impulses of id leads to defense mechanisms such as repression, avoidance, denial     B.    Object Relations (Nagy, Chodorow)         i.    adaptation of psychoanalysis         ii.    social relationships children experience determine the development of adult personalities         iii.    attachment:  to primary caregiver; individuation:  physical/emotional separation         iv.    example of asymmetrical division of labor by gender (who mothers?) leading to different experiences of individuation leading to perpetuation of gendered norms     C.    Social learning         i.    formation of identity is a learned response to social stimuli; modeling         ii.    Piaget’s mental/physical/emotional development stage theory:  socialization and imagination have critical roles in learning – persons actively create mental and social worlds         iii.    Kohlberg’s moral development stage theory:  from punishment to norms to abstract theories         iv.    Gilligan’s care based ethics     D.    Symbolic Interactionism         i.    Persons’ actions based on meanings each attributes to things; meanings emerge from interaction; “mind as product”:  symbols give us meaning (stories, plays, myths)         ii.    Looking glass self (Cooley 1902)             a.    we imagine how we appear to others             b.    interpret others’ reactions             c.    develop self concept which is based in others’ reactions/interpretations         iii.    Role Taking (Mead 1930):  we learn to be who we are by experimentation and taking on the roles of others             a.    first of significant others and then of the “generalized other” (of how people in general regard us)             b.    through imitation, play, games             c.    SELF is who we imagine we are III.    influences on emotional development:     A.    gender assignment     B.    culture     C.    social class     D.    race/ethnicity     E.    relationships IV.    agents of socialization:     A.    family     B.    neighborhood/geography     C.    religion     D.    school -- manifest and latent functions     E.    peer groups -- conformity or rejection     F.    sports -- team player values     G.    workplace -- the more you participate in work, the more work becomes your self concept V.    society within us     A.    our social mirror which results from being socialized into a self and emotions     B.    what are some things which you don’t do because your society tells you that you can’t do them? VI.    socialization throughout the life course:     A.    childhood     B.    adolescence     C.    young adulthood     D.    middle adulthood     E.    older adulthood *********************************************************** CHAPTER 2 NOTES:  Culture *     Symbols:  central component of culture -- things to which meaning is attached -- include language, gestures, values, norms, sanctions, folkways, mores I.    What is CULTURE?     A.    The language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, material objects passed from one generation to the next         i.    material culture:  things (jewelry, art, buildings, weapons, machines, clothing, hairstyles, etc.)         ii.    non-material culture:  ways of thinking (beliefs, values, assumptions) and common patterns of behavior (language, gestures, and other forms of interaction)     B.    Provides “taken-for-granted” orientation to life         i.    assumptions that our own culture is normal or natural         ii.    implicit instructions telling us what we ought to do and a moral imperative defining right & wrong         iii.    “culture shock” when we come into contact with radically different cultures -- challenge to our basic assumptions     C.    Ethnocentrism:  assuming our culture to be good, right, and superior -- and judging other cultures by our own biases     D.    Cultural relativism:  trying to appreciate other groups’ ways of life in their own context -- not judging others as inferior or superior (“different,” not “better-than”)     E.    Subculture:  groups whose values and behaviors are so distinct that they divide members from dominant culture -- a “world within a world” -- compatible with dominant culture     F.    Counterculture:  values set members in opposition to dominant culture -- often perceived as threat by dominant culture because of questioning of dominant values     G.    Ideal culture:  what persons aspire to -- real culture is what persons actually do     H.    Cultural lag:  situation where material culture changes first and nonmaterial culture lags behind     I.    Cultural diffusion:  transmission of cultural characteristics from one culture to another; more likely to produce changes in material rather than nonmaterial culture; diffusion more rapid today     J.    Cultural Leveling:  process by which cultures become more similar (used especially to describe process of importation of Western industrialism into other cultures) II.    Symbolic Culture (non-material culture)     A.    Gestures:  using one’s body to communicate in shorthand         i.    used by persons in every culture -- but different movements and meanings -- misuse or misinterpretation can lead to confusion or offense         ii.    disagreement about existence of universal gestures     B.    Language:  system of symbols which communicate abstract and concrete thoughts and feelings         i.    allows experience to be cumulative over generations         ii.    allows shared perspectives or understandings         iii.    allows for exchange of perspectives         iv.    allows persons to engage in complex, shared, goal-directed activity     C.    Sapir-Whorf theory:  language determines consciousness – “language is the mold into which our minds are poured         i.    our thinking and perception are not only expressed by language but are also SHAPED by language         ii.    our particular language “teaches” us how to think and perceive in a particular way     D.    Values:  standards by which persons define good and bad, beautiful and ugly -- core values in US culture:  see text (difficult to name because of variety of groups in US)         i.    conflicting and contradicting values (e.g., democracy and racism, equality and sexism) are common -- point to changes in society (core values don’t change without strong resistance)         ii.    value clusters:  related core values which come together to form a larger whole (“success” includes hard work, education, efficiency, material comfort, and individualism)         iii.    ideal culture:         iv.    values sometimes blind persons to other social circumstances (e.g., success stories may blind persons in US to the consequences of poverty, lack of education, and dead-end jobs)     E.    Norms vary in their importance in different cultures         i.    folkways are not strictly enforced (spitting may get you a dirty look)         ii.    mores are believed essential to core values of a culture -- we insist on conformity (murder is violation of a more)         iii.    taboos are so strictly ingrained that the thought of violation brings revulsion (e.g., eating human flesh)     F.    Sanctions:  reactions both positive (money, prize, smile, handshake) or negative (fine, frown, harsh words) to the ways in which a person follows norms III.    Technology:  tools -- and the skills or procedures necessary to make tools     A.    technologies set the framework for nonmaterial culture, influencing the ways persons think and how they relate to each other     B.    Mass media:  channels of communication available to wide segments of the population which strongly shape public information and attitudes         i.    television as the “national religion” (Gerbner)         ii.    commercial interests and producers’ perceptions of what matters determine what and how news is presented (e.g., crime is highly publicized even while occurrence of crime has dropped) ********************************************************** CHAPTERS 1/4 NOTES:  History and Theory of Sociology What is sociology? Sociology is the scientific study of human interaction.  Sociology studies how societies are organized, how societies change, and how people produce society through their actions.  The promise of sociology is to provide knowledge so that individuals and groups can reflect upon and challenge the legitimacy of the structures and processes within society. Society v. Sociology Society: ▸    System of interaction:  individuals, groups, institutions ▸    Group of human beings "oriented" towards one another:  Shared understandings = Meaningful interaction ▸    The “Social” is an "emergent reality" Sociologists: ▸    Not interested in same concerns as economists, political scientists, etc., but in the human activity/interaction that surrounds and defines these spheres of social life ▸    Look behind the scenes ▸    Explore "taken-for-granted" reality ▸    Uncover patterns that define the particular groups, or entire societies Social Problem v. Sociological Problem Social:  What people are concerned about.  What they define as a problem. Sociological:  Not why a "thing" goes wrong, but, why and how and who defines the "thing" as wrong. Sociology is interested in how the "system" (institutional structure) works- so: ▸    Not Crime, but the Law. ▸    Not Divorce, but Marriage and the Family. ▸    Not Poverty, but Economic Stratification. ▸    Not drug use, but the "Social Construction of Drug Abuse" Sociology, due to the logic of the discipline and its method contains an inherent "Debunking Motif" and questions “common sense” conclusions.  Sociology seeks to expose myths and "taken-for-granted" assumptions in order to reveal the level of reality that lies behind our behavior. What is the defining feature of sociology?  Sociology's claim to uniqueness lies in its focus on society as a "totality" -- of comprehending life in its whole dimension -- the BIG PICTURE. Sociology, with the exception of anthropology, is the only social science that somehow tolerates the claim that a social science is possible that elaborates the complex interfaces of economy, power, culture, language, agency, historicity, etc. THE SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION: Understanding Mind, Self, and Society sociologically     The Sociological Imagination refers to an ability to perceive the intersections of history and biography.  Or, to phrase it another way, it allows the researcher to view human lives as they are shaped by historically conditioned social forces.  As we go about our daily routines, we often forget that they are in many ways affected by larger economic, political, and cultural forces that are all but invisible to us.  For example, if the number of people put in prison in a country rises dramatically, as it has recently in the United States, common sense might suggest that this is because of a dramatic increase in criminal behavior.  Sociologists ask whether or not this "obvious" explanation is correct.  There may be other reasons for the increase in the prison population in the United States.     C.W. Mills argued that the sociological imagination enables us to understand the relationship between private troubles (such as getting arrested for selling drugs) and public issues (such as the emergence of a lucrative drug economy in impoverished inner-city neighborhoods where few legal economic opportunities exist).  Mills believed that by understanding these relationships, we will be better able to take charge of our lives.  After all, if we are to avoid becoming victims of large, seemingly distant events, we must study them in order to better understand how they affect us on a daily basis.  Only then can we hope to make decisions and take actions to improve our lives and/or change society effectively.     Sociologists sometimes refer to Mills' distinction between private troubles and public issues as a difference between the micro and macro levels of social relations.  The micro level refers to social relations that involve direct social interaction with others, including families, friends, coworkers, and fellow students.  This level is termed micro because it is small-scale, almost as if we used a microscope to focus on a tiny range of social processes requiring our direct involvement.  The macro level refers to the larger, more invisible, and often more remote social processes that help to shape the micro world.  These include the political, economic, cultural, and other large-scale social forces.  It is important to remember that the distinction between micro and macro is partly artificial.  At the same time, the actions we take in our micro worlds, whether it be as students in our universities or as citizens in our communities, will have an impact on the macro world as well. An excerpt from C.W. Mills' discussion of The Sociological Imagination:     "The sociological imagination enables its possessor to understand the larger historical scene in terms of its meaning for the inner life and the external career of a variety of individuals.     "The first fruit of this imagination -- the first lesson of the social science that embodies it -- is the idea that the individual can understand his own experience and gauge his own fate only by locating himself within his period, that he can know his own chances in life only by becoming aware of those of all individuals in his circumstances ... We have come to know that every individual lives, from one generation to the next, in some society; that he lives out a biography, and that he lives it out within some historical sequence. By the fact of his living he contributes, however minutely, to the shaping of this society and to the course of its history, even as he is made by society and by its historical push and shove ...     "The sociological imagination enables us to grasp history and biography and the relations between the two within society ... It is the capacity to range from the most impersonal and remote transformations to the most intimate features of the human self -- and to see the relations between the two ...     "Perhaps the most fruitful distinction with which the sociological imagination works is between 'the personal troubles of milieu' and 'the public issues of social structure' ... 'Troubles' occur within the character of the individual and within the range of his immediate relations with others ... A trouble is a private matter: values cherished by an individual are felt by him to be threatened. 'Issues' have to do with matters that transcend these local environments of the individual and the range of his inner life ... An issue, in fact, often involves a crisis in institutional arrangements ...     "In these terms, consider unemployment. When, in a city of 100,000, only one man is unemployed, that is his personal trouble, and for its relief we properly look to the character of the man, his skills, and his immediate opportunities. But when in a nation of 50 million employees, 15 million men are unemployed, that is an issue, and we may not hope to find its solution within the range of opportunities open to any one individual.     "What we experience in various and specific milieu, I have noted, is often caused by structural changes. Accordingly, to understand the changes of many personal milieux we are required to look beyond them ... To be aware of the idea of social structure and to use it with sensibility is to be capable of tracing such linkages among a great variety of milieu. To be able to do that is to possess the sociological imagination." ****************************************** Levels of sociological analysis *     Macro:  investigates large scale social forces and the effects they have on entire societies and the groups within them *     Micro:  social interaction; what persons do when they come together *     Need for both in sociological discourse *     Ethnomethodology (Garfinkel):  uncovering background assumptions which form the basic core of your reality and provide basic rules concerning your view of the world and of how persons ought to act *     Social Construction of Reality:  what you define as real because of your background assumptions and life experiences  (W.I. Thomas:  “If persons define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.”) Macrosociological perspective focus on Social Structure I.    Components of social structure (changes in components leads to changes in existing social structure)     A.    culture:  non-material (language, beliefs, values, behaviors, gestures) and material objects     B.    social class:  based on income, education, occupational prestige (large numbers of persons similar in these ways make up a social class)     C.    social status:  positions you occupy in the social structure (status set = all statuses and positions occupied)         i.    ascribed status = status received involuntarily         ii.    achieved status = earned or accomplished positions         iii.    status symbols = identify a status         iv.    master status = cuts across other statuses (eg, gender)         v.    status inconsistency = contradiction or mismatch of statuses     D.    roles:  behaviors, obligations, and privileges attached to your status (you occupy a status, and act out a role -- as roles are acted out, they mesh together to form society)     E.    groups:  person with whom you regularly and consciously interact and with whom you typically share similar values, norms, and expectations         i.    involuntary:  family or racial groupings         ii.    voluntary:  professional associations     F.    institutions:  society’s standard ways of meeting its basic needs; set limits and provide guidelines for our activity         i.    institutions identified in the text:  family, religion, law, politics, economics, education, science, medicine, military, media (an “emerging institution”)         ii.    Functionalist v. Conflict Perspective of Institutions             a.    functionalist:  established ways of meeting universal group needs, including replacing members, socializing new members, producing and distributing goods and services, preserving order, and providing a sense of purpose             b.    conflict:  the primary means by which the elite maintain privileged position Microsociological perspective An analysis of small-scale (micro) patterns in society I.    Social interaction:  what persons do when they are in on another’s presence     A.    communications, both verbal and non-verbal     B.    personal space:  physical space you claim as your own; varies from culture to culture; we protect our personal space by controlling eye contact     C.    touching -- frequency and meaning differs by culture, gender II.    Social self:  The view that a "self" is produced by the interaction of two or more persons (for example, the concept of the mother without the child, the professor without the student, the physician without a patient are absurd)     A.    Self is not something which resides within the boundaries of a single individual but rather a complex interaction between two or more people.     B.    Such a view calls into questions the meaning of concepts like freedom, individuality, liberty, and punishment of individuals because most behavior, both good and bad, is socially constructed (as are notions of good and bad) III.    Dramaturgy (Goffman 1960s):  Analysis of how we present ourselves in daily life -- “All the world’s a stage” -- you tend to become the roles you play, which are also sometimes incorporated into your self concept     A.    Front stage:  lines are delivered and performances given     B.    Back stage:  rest, discuss, plan     C.    Role performance:  particular emphasis or interpretation (style)     D.    Role conflict:  expectations of one role are incompatible with those of another     E.    Role strain:  struggle within one particular role     F.    Impression management:  managing how others experience you     G.    Sign vehicles:         i.    Social setting:  where action unfolds, includes scenery which communicates messages         ii.    Appearance:  how you look when you play a role, includes props which decorate you         iii.    Manner:  your attitudes as you play your roles     H.    Face-saving behaviors:  ignoring the flaws in someone’s performance Research in Sociology *     Gender in sociological research can lead to biased findings (e.g., can findings from research sample including only women or only men be generalized to the other?) -- also is a potential obstacle to doing research, especially when your gender is different from your subjects’ gender, and when the topic is sensitive I.    Ethics     A.    Fundamental concern in research     B.    Openness and Honesty:  not misrepresenting yourself, plagiarism     C.    Not harming subjects:  informed consent     D.    Protecting anonymity of subjects:  confidentiality II.    Selecting a topic -- guided by     A.    sociological curiosity     B.    interest in a particular topic     C.    research funding from government or private source     D.    pressing social issues III.    Defining the problem to be researched -- specifying exactly what you want to study IV.    Reviewing the literature     A.    uncovers existing knowledge     B.    helps focus research issue     C.    provides ideas about what questions to ask V.    Formulating hypothesis     A.    stating the expected relationship between variables     B.    based in theoretical orientation     C.    need for Operational Definitions:  precise ways to measure variables VI.    Choosing research method (based on available resources, access to subjects, purpose of research, and your training/background)     A.    survey:  collecting data by having persons answer a series of questions         i.    determine population (target group to be studied) and select a sample (persons from population to represent that population)     B.    participant observation:  participating in a research setting while observing what is happening in that setting         i.    your personal characteristics such as gender, age, race, personality, even height and weight are very important     C.    secondary analysis:  analysis of data already collected by other researchers (meta-analysis)         i.    primary use when resources are limited or existing data is systematic, accurate, and unbiased     D.    documents:  studying sources such as books, newspapers, police reports, etc.     E.    unobtrusive measures:  studying persons in their natural environment without their knowledge     F.    experimental:  especially when trying to show causal relationship         i.    involve independent variables (cause change in something/one else) and dependent variables (what is changed and measured); also experimental group (those exposed to independent variable) and control group (those not)         ii.    seldom used in sociological research because of interest in broad features of society or social activity and interest in actual workings of some group in a natural setting -- neither of which fit experimental research well VII.    Collecting data     A.    validity:  does the operational definitions measure what they are supposed to     B.    reliability:  do data produce consistent results (inadequate ODs and poor sampling reduce reliability) VIII.    Analyze results     A.    quantitative -- how frequently does social factor X occur in the population and what is the relationship between X and social factor Y?         i.    Data Sources:  historical records; structured interviews; surveys; experiments         ii.    Philosophy:  that activities of individuals and groups is in large part determined by social facts (social structure)     B.    qualitative -- what is the meaning of words and behavior to people and how is it dependent upon time and place?         i.    Data Sources: historical records; unstructured and structured interviews and life histories; observations         ii.    Philosophy: society is constructed through the meaningful activities of individuals and groups IX.    Sharing results X.    Six ways to “load the dice” in doing research     A.    Citing correlation as a cause     B.    Overgeneralizing     C.    Building in bias     D.    Faking data     E.    Using data selectively ********************************************* Symbolic interactionist theory Answers:    What is the meaning of words and behavior to people and how is it dependent upon time and place? Focus:     Face to face interaction         How persons use symbols to create social life         Microsociological (small scale patterns of social interaction) Philosophy:    Society is constructed through the meaningful activities of individuals and groups. Data Sources:    historical records         unstructured and structured interviews and life histories         observations Concepts: ▸    Context ▸    Interpretation ▸    Meaning ▸    Process ▸    Communication ▸    Interpretation ▸    Definition of the Situation ▸    Non-verbal communication ▸    Symbols Symbols sets:    People have four sets of symbols with which they can help define a situation and construct a social-life world:     1.    voiced symbols which use some eight variables upon which to encode meaning [tone, pitch, volume, pace and such]     2.    face and body talk; hands, face, legs, and eyes are used extensively to transmit information     3.    clothing and body decorations are used to denote gender, age, authority, and other background information     4.    props such as keys, clip-boards, guns and such.  These are all personal media and cannot easily be divorced from the person who uses or is in possession of them. Symbolic interaction works to describe a very complex process by which ideas are converted into social facts.  In a “self-fulfilling prophecy,” the prophecy contains the idea of the role, the occasion or the social institution under construction.  Then -- through a remarkable process using words, gestures, clothing, equipment, and architecture -- forms of social reality are constructed by some set of persons.  This view of reality formation contrasts to theories which locate human behavior in genes or purely psychological processes.  It also calls into question the idea that forms of social reality exist independently of the people who construct them anew in each marriage, church service, class, or business act. Structural-Functionalist theory Answers:     What are the sources of unity in society? Focus:        The interdependence or relationships among social units         Macrosociological perspective (large scale patterns)   Philosophy:    Society is a natural phenomenon. Concepts: ▸    Equilibrium ▸    Consensus ▸    Solidarity ▸    Functions (manifest and latent) ▸    Dysfunctions ▸    Stability ▸    Order Basic Ideas: 1.    Society is a stable system. 2.    Norms as necessary, Deviance as functional. 3.    Focus on the consequences of behavioral patterns. 4.    NEEDS of the system. (Understand behavior by relating to system needs) 5.    Deviance (in general) is universal and persistent. 6.    All parts work together to promote stability and order Functionalist Perspective Displays: 1.    Complexity of the relationship between deviance and conformity 2.    Dispels notion of pathology 3.    Leads to a certain appreciation of deviance 4.    Deviance as being a viable way of life 5.    The continuum of behavior: Not either/or reality 6.    Deviance as part of normal society BUT, the Functionalist perspective: 1.    Glosses over conflict and competing group/class interests. 2.    Doesn't ask, "Functional for Whom?" 3.    Assumes the objective reality of norms. Structural-functionalism emphasizes order, harmony and cooperation between the various segments of society.  Functionalists assume that all of the various parts (structures) of society are more or less necessary, and that the continued well-being of society depends upon the harmonious integration of all these parts--each part must contribute its special goods/services.  Social radicals see this as implicit endorsement of the status quo, and therefore inherently conservative.  From a structural-functionalist perspective, crime is necessary.  In contrast, marxist conflict theorists hold that crime consists of behavior which destroys community, culture, or praxis and is not necessarily functional. Conflict theory Answers:    What are the sources of conflict in society? Focus:        The competing interests of social units         The struggle for scarce resources         How dominant elites use power to control the less powerful         Macrosociological perspective (large scale patterns) Philosophy:    Society is a purposely created human construction.         Humans are creative Beings (that is, Workers who Fulfill Needs (Power and     Potential) through our labor). Concepts: ▸    Powerlessness ▸    Estrangement ▸    Inequality ▸    Power ▸    Conflict ▸    Change ▸    Competition ▸    Exploitation Problem of appearance of Stability ▸    social power ▸    competing interests ▸    social inequality Alienation: ▸    Alienated from the act of working ▸    Alienated from the product of our labor ▸    Alienated from our fellow workers ▸    Alienated from all of humanity There are two varieties of Conflict Theory, a conservative and a radical view of conflict.  The conservative one (after Coser) holds that society is held together by conflict.  Conflict is a safety valve which helps solve problems and is symptomatic of healthy and open relations between groups.  This approach tends to reduce the hostile contrast between groups (exploitation, oppression, enslavement, depersonalization, and such) to mere differences of opinion which can be resolved by "men of good will" in reasoned discussion.  In marxian theory (the more radical view of conflict), conflict arises from a poorly designed social life world and requires social revolution to eliminate the conflict. Marxian conflict theorists look at society and see conflict and struggle rather than order, harmony, cooperation and integration.  Marxian theorists are active participants in their work, and focus on trying to serve the human interest in change and renewal, and specifically in reducing conflict in favor of those who are oppressed or excluded.  They make an assumption that the knowledge required to emancipate humans from alienating social forms is often withheld by a class or a bureaucratic elite.  The result is a partisan stance taking the perspective of those at the bottom of social hierarchy in an effort to try to empower them and democratize the organizations studied. Other Sociological Theories Social Change theory:  There are many theories of social change. Population theories emphasize increase in number of people per square unit as producing divisions of labor and related social changes; Cultural diffusion theory points to the stimulating effects of ideas and practices brought into a society by migrants; Capitalism pushes changes in technology, in knowledge systems and in class, race and gender relations.  Those in environmental studies tend to emphasize degradation of soil, air and water as leading factors in social change.  Many think that “great” men are crucial to social change.  Others put religion and religious prophets in the forefront.  All these are deeply interconnected and variously important in explaining social change.  The larger point is that change is always a part of societies; it is impossible to reproduce a culture or a society precisely in each new generation; conditions change, social practices change.  Change is ubiquitous;  the pace of change increasing;  stability is rare and becoming rarer. Postmodern Phenomenology:  The postmodern position is that humans create scientific categories and social facts.  Social facts are created by first proclaiming the existence of some social form and then creating that reality.  The result is a “reality” which varies greatly according to time and place but still has commonalities.  For example, in establishing scientific categories, we select just that part of incredibly complex and interconnected natural and social events which fits/creates the category and then treat all other events/elements as observer error, faulty research design, chance, or poor reasoning.  There are no objective categories of nature or society apart from or beyond the act of creating.  In postmodern philosophy of science, forms of reality may have a very fragile fractal and changing mix of order/disorder. Post-structuralism:  Post-structuralists maintain that no eternal truths or laws govern the social order; and that knowledge of institutions and other systems depends on language. Post-structuralists argue that speaking/discoursing about social and natural reality is utterly dependent on language, and -- since the act of naming, describing, interpreting, understanding varies widely across cultures -- it then follows that assigning meaning to institutions and systems of a culture/society is an arbitrary (subjective) process of selection (that is, it depends on people sharing similar meanings).  Since people interact and communicate through many language systems, no precise, final, objective truths can ever be discovered; no 'deep structures' can ever be found.  At best, there can only be approximations to the incredibly complex, variable and constantly changing patterns of social life and natural events.  These approximations are themselves subject to divergent interpretations, dependent on the multiple codes through which individuals interpret and understand social phenomena. Critical theory:  An approach to the study of society in which human interests shape and guide the research enterprise from the formation of analytic categories to the quest for accurate, relevant, timely, sensible information.  Critical theory has an overt political goal: that of a rational and decent society.  By contrast, structural-functional theory asserts itself to be value-free (even though its analytic categories and research focus are controlled by its sponsors).  The transfer of the political responsibility for the use of science from the producer to the user simply masks its politics and, at the same time, exculpates the scientists from any responsibility for his product. Constitutive Theory:  This social psychology blends insights in symbolic interactionism, phenomenology, and labeling sociology, along with Marxism and postmodern social thought.  The person is a subject in process -- not a passive receptacle of social rules, norms, roles and controls.  For example, education both constitutes social relations and is constituted in turn by a subject's use of the educational process.  Determining which comes first, individual or society becomes a nonsense goal.  Both are in a changing/ changeable process of construction.  Constitutive theory further argues that language/discourse is a problem in the constitutive dialog since language honors the voice of some and represses the voices of many.  Consider psychiatry; in order to be released, psychiatric patients must employ only those speech patterns and thought sequences consistent with medico-legal wellness.  By adopting this discourse, mental health systems re-legitimize and further concretize power of medico-legal discourse to linguistically (and therefore socially) regulate their lives.  If they resist the discourse, patients are defined as “mentally ill.” ****************************************** CHAPTER 9 NOTES:  Race and Ethnicity * Remember, especially regarding race and ethnicity, We Act on Our Beliefs NOT on Reality I.    Race:  group of persons with inherited physical characteristics which distinguish it from other groups     A.    reality since persons have different physical characteristics     B.    myth because no race is “pure” (we are all mutts :)     C.    the myth becomes reality when persons believe ideas about race and act on these beliefs II.    Ethnicity:  cultural characteristics which distinguish a group of persons     A.    ethnocentrism so common that each racial/ethnic group views other groups as inferior in at least some way III.    Dominant Groups:  persons with greater power, more privileges, and higher social status     A.    person within dominant group usually attributes privileged position to superiority, not discrimination IV.    Minority Groups:  persons singled out for unequal treatment and who regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination     A.    not necessarily numerical minority     B.    group becomes minority in two ways:         i.    as a result of an expansion of political boundaries by another group (e.g., Native Americans became a minority in North America when European nations expanded their political boundaries in the 16th/17th Centuries)         ii.    as a result of voluntary or involuntary migration into different political/geographical area     C.    shared characteristics of minority groups worldwide         i.    membership ascribed involuntarily at birth         ii.    physical or cultural traits which distinguish them are held in low esteem by dominant group         iii.    unequally treated by dominant group         iv.    tend to marry within their own group         v.    tend to feel strong group solidarity     D.    Prejudice:  prejudging of some sort, usually in negative way (less prejudice among more educated and younger persons)     E.    Discrimination:  unfair treatment directed at someone (racism, sexism, heterosexism, etc.)         i.    individual:  one persons treating another person in negative manner         ii.    institutional:  negative treatment of minority group built into societal institutions Sociological perspectives on prejudice I.    Functionalist:  social environment can be deliberately arranged to generate either positive or negative feedback about persons     A.    functional since it creates in-group solidarity and out-group antagonism     B.    dysfunctional since it destroys human relationships     C.    Assimilation of various groups (“melting pot”) is required for stability of social structure II.    Conflict:  ruling class systematically pits group against group; by splitting workers across racial lines, ruling class benefits as solidarity among workers is weakened     A.    higher unemployment among minorities creates ready pool of workers when ruling class needs them     B.    this pool creates tension among white workers who bend to the demands of the working class rather than losing their jobs     C.    class inequality must be reduced to lessen racial/ethnic conflict III.    Symbolic-Interactionist:  the labels we use color our perceptions, leading us to see certain things and blinding us to others     A.    racial/ethnic labels powerful as they are shorthand for emotional stereotypes     B.    stereotypes not only justify prejudice and discrimination, but also lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy of stereotypical behavior in those who are stereotyped Global patterns of Intergroup Relations I.    Genocide:  actual or attempted systematic annihilation of a racial or ethnic group     A.    Holocaust in central Europe in the 1920s, 30s, 40s     B.    Colonizers and US government treatment of Native Americans from 16th Century to the present II.    Population Transfer:  involuntary movement of minority group     A.    Direct:  forced removal     B.    Indirect:  making conditions so bad that groups leave     C.    Population Transfer and Genocide in former Yugoslavia through 1990s as Serbs slaughtered Muslims and Croats, with survivors forced to flee III.    Internal Colonialism:  exploitation of minority group by using social institutions to deny access to full benefits     A.    Slavery     B.    Usually accompanied by segregation (formal separation of groups) so that social distance is maintained while labor of minority groups is exploited by dominant group IV.    Assimilation:  process by which minority is absorbed into the mainstream     A.    Forced:  dominant group prohibits minority group members from practice of particular religion, language, customs     B.    Permissive:  minority groups adopt dominant group patterns in its own way and/or at its own pace V.    Pluralism/Multiculturalism:  philosophy which permits or encourages ethnic variation Present Day Racial/Ethnic Issues in the US I.    Immigration:  some persons fear that “too many” immigrants will alter the character of the US, undermining its basic institutions and contributing to the breakdown of society II.    Affirmative Action (making conscious decisions to include racial/ethnic minorities in employment, contracts, etc.)     A.    Liberals:  most direct way to “level the playing field” of economic opportunity     B.    Conservatives:  results in “reverse discrimination” in which dominant group members are shut out of opportunities ******************************************* CHAPTERS 5/6 NOTES:  Groups & Deviance Groups *     help determine our goals and values, how we feel about ourselves, even how we feel about life itself *     essential element of social groups:  members have something in common and believe that what they have in common makes a difference *     society is the largest and most complex group sociologists study I.    The Big Five Functions of Groups     A.    Belonging:  Provide opportunity for contact and relationships with others in an organized social network; other-oriented, social, belongingness; promote general communication     B.    Intimacy:  Provide opportunity for warm, supportive, loving relationships with others; friendships, cohesive work groups, families     C.    Generativity:  Provide opportunity for productivity, achievement, success, control of resources; task-orientation     D.    Stability:  Provide the means to increase stability or decrease anxiety; minimize self-doubt, tension, vulnerability, insecurity, and self-pity while increasing self-esteem, relaxation, hardiness, safety, and self-satisfaction     E.    Adaptability:  Provide opportunity for creativity, refinement of ideas, self-improvement, increased understanding of self and others, improved interpersonal relations II.    Primary Groups     A.    Cooperative, intimate, long-term, face-to-face interaction (Cooley)     B.    Become part of person’s identity and the lens through which she views life III.    Secondary Groups     A.    Larger, relatively temporary; more anonymous, formal, and impersonal     B.    Based on interest or activity; interaction in specific roles, such as student     C.    Tend to break down into primary groups within a larger group structure (e.g., friendship cliques at work or school) -- so, secondary groups often provide comfort in the face of a secondary group’s demands IV.    In-Groups and Out-Groups     A.    We feel loyalty to our in-groups which provide a sense of identification or belonging, and antagonistic toward out-groups which don’t provide these     B.    In-group membership leads to discrimination; given our loyalty, we prefer our in-group (can lead to double standards -- label same behaviors virtues in-group & vices in out-groups)     C.    When world is divided into “us” and “them,” can lead “us” to perpetrate violence against “them” V.    Reference Groups     A.    Standards to evaluate ourselves whether or not we belong to these groups     B.    Can exert significant influence:  changes in clothing, hairstyle, speech, and other ways of being to match what the reference group would expect     C.    Internal conflict when two reference groups conflict     D.    Social Networks of persons we know connect us to the larger society -- networks support inequality since only some of us have juice VI.    Group Dynamics:  intensity v. stability     A.    Dyad:  most fragile and most intense     B.    Triad:  unstable, can lead to triangulation     C.    Larger         i.    less intensity/higher stability when more linkages among more persons         ii.    develop structure which enables group to survive over time         iii.    tend to break into smaller groups responsibility becomes more diffuse         iv.    interaction becomes more formal VII.    Group Influence     A.    Peer pressure is strong influence and can lead to “groupthink” (Janis) in which any suggestion of alternatives becomes a sign of disloyalty     B.    Diminish groupthink by exposure to persons with conflicting views     C.    Asch Experiment using cards with lines:  33% gave wrong answers at least half the time even knowing answers were wrong; only 25% always gave correct answers Special Kinds of Groups: Formal Organizations, Bureaucracies, and Voluntary Organizations *     Formal Organizations are secondary groups designed to achieve explicit objectives (and, are central feature of modern life) *     Bureaucracies are significant because they represent a fundamental change in how persons relate to one another (work used to focus on human needs such as making sure that everyone made a living -- now the only focus is efficiency and maximizing profits) I.    Weber -- characteristics of ideal bureaucracy:     A.    Hierarchy where assignments flow downward and accountability flows upward     B.    Rigid division of labor     C.    Written rules     D.    Written communication and records     E.    Impersonal-ness     F.    Dysfunctions         i.    Red Tape (strict adherence to rules) often results in nothing being accomplished         ii.    Lack of Communication among units means work at cross-purposes         iii.    Alienation (feeling of powerlessness and helplessness) can occur when workers are assigned repetitive tasks which increase efficiency while cutting them off from the product of their labor             a.    Workers resist alienation by forming primary groups within the larger secondary organization (relating to one another not just as workers but as human beings who value one another)             b.    When alienated, workers feel trapped, do not take initiative, will not do anything beyond what she is absolutely required to do, and uses rules to justify doing as little as possible         iv.    Incompetence reflected in the “Peter Principle” (promotion to level of incompetence) -- though bureaucracies are highly successful at improving both efficiency and the bottom line II.    Careers of persons in bureaucracies     A.    Iron Law of Oligarchy:  Corporate elite maintain hidden values which keep persons in power, provide better access to info, networking, and “fast tracks” for persons like themselves     B.    Persons who “fit” have many chances to advance; seen as outperforming and more committed even if they are not     C.    Outsiders given few opportunities; think poorly of themselves; less committed; work below their potential; may be “showcased” in highly visible yet weak positions III.    Voluntary Organizations:  groups of volunteers organized on the basis of some interest     A.    Functions:         i.    Advance particular interests         ii.    Offer persons an identity and sometimes a sense of purpose in life         iii.    Govern the nation and maintain social order         iv.    Mediate between government and individuals         v.    Train persons in organizational skills and climb occupational ladder         vi.    Help disadvantaged groups and bring them into mainstream         vii.    Challenge society’s definitions of “normal” and socially acceptable Rationalization of Society Rationality:  the acceptance of rules, efficiency, and practical results as the correct way to approach human affairs (characteristic of industrial and post-industrial societies) I.    Marx:  Capitalism led to rationalization     A.    Capitalism required a change in the ways persons thought (from “this is the way we’ve always done it” to “let’s find the most efficient way to do it”)     B.    Persons changed their minds because capitalism produced the material objects they wanted in greater abundance     C.    As a result, for most persons personal relationships are replaced by impersonal, short-term contracts and the “bottom line” becomes the primary concern     D.    Conflict theorists maintain that the basic relationship between workers and owners is confrontational regardless of how the work organization is structured II.    Weber:  Religion (Protestantism) is key to the rationalization of society     A.    Capitalism first emerged in primarily Protestant nations     B.    Persons sought evidence of being “God’s chosen” and found it in financial success, >> to investing (because excess money is not to be spent on oneself), >> to further financial success, >> further evidence of God’s approval     C.    “Protestant work ethic” III.    McDonaldization of society (Ritzer)     A.    efficiency:  standardized and streamlined, increasingly mechanized     B.    calculability:  quantitative aspects (size, cost, time of production) more important than quality     C.    predictability:  assurance of sameness     D.    control:  reduction of persons’ acts to series of machine-like acts; careful monitoring of both customers and workers (most important aspect of McDonaldization) Deviance and Control I.    Order is maintained through social control     A.    Control occurs at all levels     B.    Most respect and accept while expecting same of others     C.    Failure leads to sanctions (formal and informal)     D.    Conformity and Obedience         i.    Conformity --going along with one's peers         ii.    Obedience--Compliance with authority (institutionalized power) II.    Deviance     A.    Behavior (or identity) that violates (or is interpreted as violating) the standards of conduct or expectations of a group or society     B.    Comprehensive term (Can be anything, anywhere, anyone -- though more likely some than others -- Not just Nuts and Sluts, but does include them)     C.    No Moral connotation     D.    All have violated, not all deviant:  definitions depend on social process and social context III.    The Social Context     A.    Deviance exists only relative to cultural norms and dominant moral codes     B.    People become deviant only as others define them that way -- Acts are not deviant in and of themselves -- Relationship     C.    Both norms and defining processes involve POWER IV.    Deviance and Crime     A.    Same, but different     B.    Crime is the absolute expression of political structure     C.    Drug Crimes:  Locking up persons because we dislike them rather than because we fear them V.    Deviance and Social Problems     A.    Same, but different     B.    Objectivist versus constructionist         i.    Objectivist:  True, real, essential, and universal -- search for "causes"         ii.    Constructionism:  categories/essences are social as opposed to natural -- So, in order to identify “social problems,” the question becomes “whose interests are served?” VI.    Hate Crimes (1980s)     A.    crime motivated by bias (dislike, hatred) against persons who are members of a particular group     B.    taking motivation into account means more severe sentences VII.    Deviance and Mental Disorders:  Szasz     A.    Myth of Mental Illness (Neither “mental” nor “illness” but Problem Behaviors)     B.    Retrospective Interpretation     C.    Residual Deviance (Consequences of label) Sociological theories about deviance I.    Symbolic Interactionist:  Conceptualized as “Deviant Identities” in processes and relationships -- Not interested in WHY questions, but HOW questions     A.    Elements of Social Bonds:         i.    Belief (internal)         ii.    Attachment (external)         iii.    Commitment (external)         iv.    Involvement (external)     B.    Labeling Theory:  Focus on the agents of social control and the impact of the labeling process ("The deviant is one who is successfully labeled as such")         i.    Stigma (sexual minorities as “queer”)         ii.    Self-fulfilling prophecy (self-concept and exclusion: Looking-Glass Self)         iii.    Relativity and contingencies         iv.    Power, Social Class, and the ability to resist the Label         v.    Techniques of Neutralizing Label             a.    Deny Victim (“They deserved what they got”)             b.    Deny Harm/Injury (“It wasn’t wrong because no one got hurt”)             c.    Deny Responsibility (“I couldn’t help myself”)             d.    Condemn Condemners (“Who are you to talk?”)             e.    Appeal to higher Loyalty (“I had to help my friends”)     C.    Control Theory (Reckless)         i.    Internal (morality, integrity, fear of punishment, desire to be good)         ii.    External (coercive and repressive)         iii.    Not all social control attempts are directed towards forcing adherence to the norms         iv.    Intentionality of control not always directed at changing behavior     D.    Differential Association (Sutherland)         i.    Learn behavior, ideas, and attitudes         ii.    Study motives for association II.    Functionalism:  Deviance is normal and necessary, provides Boundary Maintenance, Group Solidarity, Innovation, Tension Reduction     A.    Structural Strain/Anomie Theory (Merton)         i.    persons socialized to seek culturally defined and accepted goals (aspirations) while being denied socially approved means for obtaining         ii.    Conformity most common reaction:  use lawful means to seek goals given by society         iii.    Some persons deviate (don’t conform) in the following ways:             a.    Innovation:  use illegal means to reach approved goals             b.    Ritualism:  reject cultural goals but cling to conventional rules of conduct             c.    Retreatism:  reject cultural goals / drop out of conventional society             d.    Rebellion:  reject goals & conduct but seek to develop new goals & conduct III.    Conflict Theory:  Deviance as a Political Process with focus on Power and Control     A.    Politics leads to Creation and Enforcement of Law     B.    Law is seen as a tool of the state (which is controlled by the dominant class)     C.    Laws reflect and protect dominant class interests     D.    If A, B, & C are accurate, then Bias, Discretion, Differential enforcement & treatment result         i.    Bias in Criminal Justice System produces homogeneous population in prison             a.    10.2% African-Am. vs. 2.7% Whites who are arrested become institutionalized             b.    Visibility of powerless persons as “criminals”             c.    White Collar crime prosecuted as regulatory action, fine often tax deductible         ii.    Real Crimes?  Institutional vs. Individual Behavior             a.    Racism             b.    Sexism             c.    Neocolonialism     E.    Freedom in an unequal society becomes the ability to Profit over others, to define “deviance” ************************************************* CHAPTERS 7/8 NOTES:  Class and Stratification Social Stratification *     A system in which large groups of persons are layered by relative power, property, and prestige *     Exists within individual societies/nations and also among nations *     Affects our life chances (opportunities that persons in a particular class have in common by virtue of membership in that class, including access to jobs, health care, housing, and education) and our orientations toward life *     Social mobility:  movement up or down ladder based on achieved status I.    Systems of Social Stratification     A.    Estate:  elite have total control over societal resources; common in agricultural societies     B.    Caste:  Status determined by birth and is lifelong     C.    Class:  Based primarily on the monetary or material possessions -- Initially based on that of one’s parents (which means it is an ascribed status) II.    Gender:  essential regardless of the system     A.    Sorted into categories and given differential access to rewards     B.    Males favored III.    Theories of Stratification     A.    Modernization theory (functionalist)         i.    economic development of a country is a process in which traditional societies change attitudes, values, and institutions         ii.    poor countries are poor because of poor attitudes and institutions, so, “development” is seen as solution     B.    Dependency theory (conflict)         i.    poverty of low income countries results from colonization and economic exploitation of higher income countries         ii.    Neocolonialism:  form of international control in which rich nations set prices for raw materials produced by poor countries at low levels so that poor countries are unable to accumulate enough profit to industrialize         iii.    Multinational corporations:  buy resources and labor in countries with lowest prices, keeping poor nations poor and allowing Wal-mart to keep rolling back prices     C.    World systems theory (conflict)         i.    the world economic system must be understood as a unit, not as individual countries         ii.    three groups of interrelated nation-states             a.    core countries:  rich, powerful, capitalist states in control of system             b.    semi-peripheral countries:  occupy intermediate position             c.    peripheral countries:  poor, largely agricultural, manipulated by core countries which extract resources and profits from them         iii.    results in international division of labor producing goods through a commodity chain; leads to international migration of refugees to feed demand for cheap labor Social Class *     Large group of persons who rank close to each other in property, power, & prestige – determines access to economic, social, political, and cultural resources of society – an attribute of individuals and a feature of society *     Property:  Wealth (what we own) and Income (money we receive) -- not always the same *     Prestige:  respect persons give to various occupations and accomplishments (e.g., inventions, feats, doing good to others) -- displayed with status symbols (e.g., clothing, cars, addresses, schools) *     Power:  the ability to control others, even over their objections I.    Determination of Social Class (combination of Wealth, Prestige, and Power)     A.    Marx:  relationship to means of production (tools, factories, land, and investment capital used to create wealth) – two classes:  capitalist (bourgeoisie) and working (proletariat)     B.    Weber:  Property, Prestige, and Power II.    Functionalist and Conflict theories     A.    functionalism:  inequality is mechanism to ensure that most talented persons gain most demanding and important positions (more important jobs pay more according to this)     B.    conflict:  stratification is system of domination and subordination reflecting the class interests of powerful rather than the survival needs of the larger group – the more stratified a system is the less likely it will benefit from the talents of all its people III.    Uneven distribution of property in the US     A.    Wealth:         i.    Top 10% in US own 68% of all wealth; top 1% own 38% of all wealth         ii.    Wealthiest 1% in US have more than the bottom 90% combined         iii.    US more stratified than any other industrialized nation-state     B.    Income:         i.    Top 20% acquire 47% of all income – bottom 20% acquire 4.2% of income         ii.    Top 10% of US households reaped 73% of recent stock market growth         iii.    Bottom 20% acquire less than 5% of all income Poverty in US *     Definition of great importance:  Defined by US government as families whose incomes are less than three times a low-cost food budget -- changing this definition adds or subtracts millions of persons I.    Poverty Level:  $15,569 annual income for family of four in 1996 -- Living in poverty:  35.6 million persons (13.3%) in 1997 II.    Demographics     A.    Children more likely:  19.9% below age 18 -- 10.9% between 18 and 64 -- 10.5% over 64     B.    Rural persons more likely     C.    Race and Gender         i.    Individuals:  11% White/Non-Hispanic; 31% Hispanic; 33% African American         ii.    Families:  6% Married couples; 36% Single woman head of household         iii.    Feminization of poverty             a.    Divorce             b.    Births to unwed mothers             c.    Lower wages paid to wimmin (76 cents for every dollar earned by men)     D.    Education:  25% of persons without HS diploma -- 8% with some college III.    Generally short time in poverty:  Most for fewer than one year; only 12% for more than 5 years IV.    Causes     A.    Individual:  Strengths and weaknesses; Choices in the world     B.    Social Structure:  Inequalities in education, access to learning job skills, discrimination (race, ethnicity, age, gender), large scale economic change V.    Horatio Alger myth     A.    Statistical impossibility     B.    Important to functionalist descriptions     C.    Emphasizes individual responsibility with no recognition of impact of social structure World Poverty *     Absolute Poverty:  persons who live on less than $365 per year *     Extreme Poverty:  persons who live on less than $275 per year *     UN Human Poverty Index:  deprivation along four axes:  health and life expectancy; knowledge; economic well-being; and social inclusion (see Figure 8.2 in your text) I.    1.2 billion persons (26% of world population) live in poverty II.    30,000 persons die each day as a consequence of chronic, persistent hunger III.    poverty results from such structural problems as unstable governments, collapsed economies, changes in world economic system which increase unemployment and drive down wages ************************ CHAPTER 10 & 11 NOTES:  Gender and Sexuality *     Around the globe, gender is THE primary division among persons *     Because societies set up barriers to deny womyn equal access in every society, womyn are referred to as a “minority” even though womyn outnumber men *     Gender Stratification:  Unequal access to power, prestige, and wealth on the basis of gender *     Patriarchy:  male dominance in society -- Dominant theory assumes that patriarchy is universal and that both biology (nature) and social factors (nurture) play role in maintaining patriarchy or male dominance -- No way of testing such a theory *     Misogyny:  hatred of wimmin Nature v. Nurture in Gender and Sex *     Nature:  Role of biology in making us who we are -- innate/internal characteristics *     Nurture:  Role of social influences in making us who we are -- external/environmental *     Nature and nurture views of psychosexual development differ in significance attached to importance of genetics or hormones in development of behavioral differences between men and womyn I.    Sex is the act of “making love” (doing it, any way you do it, by yourself or with another or others, with or without any implements, with or without love, with or without consent) II.    Gender is a term which denotes categorization -- includes anything which categorizes persons, whether it’s appearance or mannerisms, biology or psychology, hormones or chromosomes, roles or genitals -- inclusive of terms “man,” “womon,” “boy,” girl,” “male,” “female” III.    Gender consists of several elements:     A.    Assignment:  how persons are labeled by others, especially authorities -- usually occurs at birth, usually determined by presence (male) or absence (female) of a penis -- most cultures assign some permanent, immutable gender at birth (before any of us can speak for ourselves)     B.    Role:  sum total of qualities, mannerisms, duties, and cultural expectations accorded a particular gender -- answers the question “what does culture think I should do with my life?”     C.    Identity:  a person's private, subjective sense of hir gender -- “am I a man or a womon or something else entirely?” -- most persons let gender assignment nonconsensually stand in for gender identity     D.    Attribution:  what we do when we first meet someone when we decide whether they are a man or a womon or something indeterminate -- based on intricate system of cues varying by culture and ranging from physical appearance/mannerisms to context & use of power Feminism *     The radical assertion that we are all equal regardless of the physical appearances of our bodies I.    First Wave -- 19th and early 20th Centuries -- Conservatives focused on suffrage (voting rights) -- Won in 1920 -- Dissolution followed II.    Second Wave -- 1960s beginning with awareness of inequalities in workplace -- broadened to include such issues as violence -- criticism of 2nd wave feminism:  too white and not inclusive enough of issues such as class III.    Third Wave -- 1990s in recognition of lack of inclusion -- issues include sexual minority persons and supporting voices of diverse many IV.    Use of symbolic interactionism to analyze unequal engagement between men and womyn     A.    when men speak to womyn, it is less like equals speaking to each other, more like a superior speaking to a subordinate (men talk down to womyn, discount or ignore what womyn say) Discrimination *     Society’s culture and institutions both JUSTIFY & MAINTAIN customary forms of gender inequality I.    Global Perspective     A.    Wimmin as a group have never held decision-making power (Lerner)     B.    Activities sex-typed in all studied societies -- same activity typed as “male” in one society typed as “female” in another -- anatomy irrelevant in typing     C.    Greater prestige universally accorded male-typed activities II.    In US     A.    Until 20th Century, womyn had no right to vote, hold property, enter into legal contracts, or serve on a jury, among other restrictions     B.    Discrimination often remains (education, politics, employment, health care, violence) III.    Education:  wimmin making some strides:     A.    More wimmin than men enrolled in US universities     B.    Wimmin earn 56% of all bachelors degrees     C.    Wimmin earn bachelors more quickly than men     * Yet, discrepancies remain:     D.    Wimmin’s sports funded at much lower levels than men’s sports     E.    Gender Tracking:  85% of engineering degrees earned by men -- 86% of library science degrees earned by wimmin     F.    Fewer wimmin in graduate programs as years pass (more wimmin in first years of programs -- fewer in third years of same programs)     G.    Rank and Pay stratified by gender at institutions of higher education -- wimmin are less likely to be in highest ranks, paid less at all ranks IV.    Workplace     A.    Womyn earn about 76 cents for every dollar earned by men -- at all levels of educational achievement     B.    Only Japan has higher gender pay gap than US among industrialized countries     C.    Pay gap grows as years pass -- men make more the day hired, make even more 5 years later     D.    None of CEOs of 350 largest US companies are womyn     E.    “Glass Elevator” -- men in non-traditional careers (e.g., male nurses) move up quickly in comparison to womyn counterparts     F.    “Glass Ceiling” -- invisible barrier to womyn reaching highest positions         i.    womyn are not in positions like marketing, sales, or production which are recruiting positions for top executives         ii.    womyn are in positions such as human resources and public relations which are underappreciated because they do not “bring in a profit”     G.    Explanations:         i.    males in corporate culture seeks potential leaders with similar characteristics as themselves -- gender discrimination self-perpetuating         ii.    womyn lack mentors -- men who are executives do not mentor for fear of sexual harassment charges or because they are misogynists and see womyn as weak     H.    glass ceiling beginning to crack somewhat as womyn act more like men in work world V.    Motherhood and work:  “Fast-track” v. “Mommy-track” v. “Zig-Zag track”     A.    “Fast-track”:  60-70 hours per week, chaotic and unpredictable schedule -- quicker promotions and raises     B.    “Mommy-track”:  fewer hours, more predictability in job -- slower promotions and raises     C.    “Zig-Zag track”:  flexibility in workplace -- more hours before children born and after they grow to certain age -- fewer hours during pregnancy and early childhood     D.    Addressing needs of parents (wimmin and men) in workplace:  childcare and flexibility without loss of opportunity VI.    Politics     A.    Wimmin under-represented, especially in higher offices – Possible reasons:         i.    wimmin under-represented in law/business, from which many politicians are drawn         ii.    wimmin have not necessarily seen themselves as a voting bloc who need political action to overcome discrimination         iii.    wimmin have generally found roles of mother and politician incompatible         iv.    men have rarely incorporated wimmin into the centers of decision-making or presented them as viable candidates     B.    Trends in 1990s indicate wimmin will increase participation in politics (1992 hailed as “the year of the womon”) -- 1992 Janet Reno first womon US Attorney General -- “Record Number” of womyn in US Senate as of 2000:  13 out of 100 -- in House of Representatives:  59 out of 435 -- Elizabeth Dole runs as Republican candidate for President in 2000 Sexual Harassment & Violence I.    Sexual Harassment     A.    Behavior of a sexual nature that is deliberate, repeated, unwelcome, not asked for, and not returned. The purpose is to make the victim uncomfortable, seem incompetent and eventually to remove them from the workplace.         i.    Joking:  A coworker tells dirty jokes in your presence. This does not offend everyone. If a coworker tells those same jokes as part of a pattern of hostility that makes you so uncomfortable that it’s hard to do your job, it’s harassment. If dirty jokes offend you, speak up. If you don't it will be assumed you accept them. This is true with any behavior you find offensive.         ii.    Touching:  If a boss or coworker touches you and makes you uncomfortable, you must speak out. Hugging, patting, nudging with one’s elbow, etc., are behaviors that some people find acceptable and some don't. Be clear as to what is acceptable to you. It does not have to be applied to everyone. You are the judge of what is comfortable to you and what isn't.     B.    Usually men are perpetrators and womyn victims, but not always II.    Hostile work environment:  Harassment isn't always about sexual exploitation, it’s about exclusion - one group trying to make the work atmosphere more difficult for another because they'd really rather not have them around. Sometimes sexuality is the focus but often other focuses are used to ostracize wimmin by making them look less serious, less capable, less committed, different, and out-of-place on the job. Womyn are trivialized or made to do trivial tasks that men shun. The purpose is to preserve the masculine image of the job and the men who do it. The goal is to make the womon targeted so uncomfortable that she quits, thus making it easier to replace her with a man and creating the sense that womyn just can't make it in the male world of work. If the harassers are successful then they do not have to change their way of doing things and they can preserve their power and privileges. It perpetuates a work environment in which the male way of doing things, male goals and values remain the standard, and accommodation to outsiders (females or minorities) is unnecessary. III.    Violence     A.    Most victims of violence are wimmin (e.g., rape, battering, spousal abuse, incest, female circumcision)     B.    One in Four wimmin are victims of sexual assault in lifetimes     C.    Rape:  Every year 3 of every 1000 womyn is raped     D.    Date Rape (sexual assault by acquaintance):  most often between persons who have known each other more than one year     E.    Resolution to violence may lie in understanding and breaking the link between violence and masculinity     F.    Feminists and others stress that US culture promotes violence by males, teaching men to associate power, dominance, strength, virility, and superiority with masculinity -- as a result, men use violence to maintain higher status DOMESTIC VIOLENCE The abuse, mental or physical of one person by another person with whom the abused has a significant and intimate relationship. Domestic violence can occur in relationships whether the couple: Is living together or not living together Is married, divorced, separated or not married Has children or does not have children Is a heterosexual or homosexual couple I.    Types of Abuse:     A.    Verbal Abuse:  Actual threats of harm to her or someone else, threats to take the children, or to commit suicide; put downs, name-calling; ridiculing her for her religious beliefs or ethnic background.     B.    Intimidation:  Smashing things, destroying her property, putting fist through wall, handling of guns or other weapons, intimidating body language (angry looks, raised voice), hostile questioning, reckless driving.     C.    Emotional Abuse:  Manipulation, denial, withdrawal, control, extreme jealousy.     D.    Isolation:  Controlling what she does, who she talks to, where she goes; keeping her from making any friends, talking to her family; having a job, having any money.     E.    Physical Abuse:  Pushing, shoving, hitting, slapping, choking, hair-pulling, punching, grabbing, kicking, beating, biting, shaking, burning, using a weapon against her (knives, guns, heavy objects)     F.    Sexual Abuse:  Forcing her to perform sex acts she doesn’t want to do or that cause pain or humiliation; rape; physically attacking the sexual parts of her body; forcing her to have sex with others.     G.    Denial of Rights:  Not allowing her any privacy, locking her up in a room, tying her to a chair, forcing her to go without food or water, not allowing her access to family finances, not allowing her to bathe, hiding necessary medications. DOMESTIC VIOLENCE STATISTICS ▸    One in three womyn are or have been a victim of domestic violence sometime in their lives. ▸    A womon is beaten by her partner every 15 seconds in the US. ▸    Four wimmin are murdered by their partners every day; 42% of all murdered females are killed by an intimate male partner. ▸    At least 25% of domestic violence victims are beaten while pregnant. ▸    The first 60-90 days after a domestic violence victim leaves an abusive relationship is the most dangerous time for her. ▸    Every month, over 50,000 womyn seek protective and restraining orders in the U.S. ▸    Domestic violence causes 100,000 days of hospitalization, 30,000 emergency room visits, and 40,000 trips to the doctor every year. ▸    92% of wimmin who are physically abused by their partners never discuss the incident with their physicians; 57% never tell anyone. ▸    40% of all police calls are domestic violence-related. ▸    In addition to the problems mentioned above, domestic violence takes a toll on the lives of children and adds to costs to employers through missed work and the community through police and other agency work. If you or someone you know is being abused, contact Safenest for assistance:  646-4981 *************************** ADDITIONAL BONUS NOTES :) Medicine and Health ▼    Medicine is a society’s standard ways of dealing with illness and injury -- In US, medicine is a profession, a bureaucracy, and a big business ▼    Medicalization:  transformation of an experience or condition into a matter to be treated by physicians (e.g., balding, weight, wrinkles, breast size) ▼    Epidemiology:  study of distribution of medical disorders throughout a population, provides information about patterns of health and illness over time I.    Symbolic Interactionist     A.    Health is affected by cultural beliefs         i.    in Western culture, a person who hears voices may be locked up         ii.    in other cultures, a person who hears voices may be revered     B.    Health is human condition measured by four components:  physical, mental, social, spiritual     C.    sociologists who work in the symbolic interactionist tradition analyze effects of persons’ ideas of health and illness on their lives     D.    Medicalization:  based on arbitrary definitions emerging from a view of life bound to a specific historical period II.    Functionalist     A.    Societies must set up ways to control sickness:  develop system of medical care and make up rules to keep too many persons from being “sick”         i.    Sick role is social role you are forced to play when you are not feeling well -- often ambiguous -- defined by social groups, physicians, parents         ii.    Gender is a significant factor:  women more able, more likely to claim to be “sick”     B.    Medicalization:  functional by giving persons opportunity to be heard and sometimes helped III.    Conflict     A.    Global stratification of medical care         i.    least industrialized nations cannot afford same lifesaving technology -- illustrated by lower life expectancy and higher infant mortality rate         ii.    differences in diseases of concern:             a.    in least industrialized nations concerned with malaria, internal parasites, diarrhea, and malnutrition             b.    in most industrialized nations:  “luxury” diseases (cancer, heart disease)         iii.    many diseases in less affluent countries preventable -- no funds to combat or elite spend funds on selves     B.    Medicalization:  indication of the growing power of the medical establishment -- as physicians medicalize more aspects of life, their power and profits increase Issues in Health Care I.    Social class affect incidence of illness and quality of care     A.    stressors greater among persons in lower social classes     B.    private hospitals and personal physicians available for more affluent -- less affluent often in understaffed/underfunded public hospitals with much less follow-up care available     C.    when health care is considered a commodity, a two-tier system results in which more affluent have access to superior care     D.    43 million persons in US have no health care insurance II.    Access to health care Right or Privilege in the US?     A.    if it’s a right, then all should have fairly equal access to care     B.    if it’s a privilege, then more affluent will have greater access than less affluent     C.    average person in US today spends $4000/year on health care ($150/year in 1960) III.    Malpractice and defensive medicine     A.    doctors held to higher standard -- litigation much more common     B.    defensive medicine means seeking consultations with colleagues and ordering additional tests -- leads to higher overall costs IV.    Depersonalization     A.    treating persons as “patients,” as “diseases,” as “cases”     B.    physicians feel increasing need to be efficient, watch clock, count dollars -- lose perspective of “treating the whole person” V.    Conflict of interest among physicians     A.    financial stake in prescribed course of treatment leads to conflict in several areas:  prescribing medications; referring persons to hospitals, pharmacies, or medical companies     B.    high volume of insurance claims lead to medical fraud:  bogus insurance claims, billing to medical providers and suppliers VI.    Sexism     A.    physicians do not take women’s health care complaints as seriously as men’s     B.    women may receive unnecessary surgery such as total hysterectomies     C.    only 25% of physicians are women -- women now earn 41% of medical degrees VII.    Euthanasia and the end of life:  technological advances mean persons can be kept “alive” by machines     A.    mercy killing and respecting person’s wish to die -- assisted suicide and Jack Kevorkian     B.    living wills help make clearer wishes of individuals VIII.    Medical Costs rising at twice the rate of inflation     A.    Health Maintenance Organizations (HMOs):  set predetermined fee for health care costs -- may eliminate unnecessary procedures -- creates pressure to minimize treatment as a way of capping costs and maximizing profits     B.    Classification of illnesses into 468 diagnostic-related groups and setting reimbursement amount for each -- if persons move through hospital system quickly, hospitals make a profit -- some persons discharged before being well, others are never admitted to hospitals for fear that they will “take too long” to get better     C.    National Health Insurance -- would help relieve inequalities but politically unrealistic presently because it has been characterized as “socialized medicine” Threats to Health I.    HIV/AIDS (human immunodeficiency virus)/(acquired immune deficiency syndrome)     A.    probably the most pressing health issue in the US and in the world -- NO CURE, though combination drug therapies can slow the process of the disease     B.    origin unknown -- transmitted through exchange of bodily fluids (e.g., blood, semen)     C.    diagnosed since 1981:  700,000 persons in US; 35 million globally     D.    fourth leading cause of death among US women aged 25-44; second leading cause of death among men 25-44     E.    STIGMA of HIV/AIDS:  fear of being tested leads to greater spread of virus II.    Globalized diseases because of travel increase III.    Alcohol and Tobacco are the most frequently used drugs in the US     A.    average drinker has 36 gallons of alcoholic beverages a year     B.    drinking among college students has been shown to lead to lower grades IV.    Disabling environment:  greenhouse effect, loss of ozone layer V.    Research leading to threats to health (e.g., Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment, radiation testing) ******************************************** Politics & Economics *     Micropolitics (Symbolic Interaction Theory):  Exercise of power in everyday life among persons *     Macropolitics (Conflict and Structural-Functional Theory):  Exercise of large-scale power over a large group *     POWER = Ability to carry out your will despite resistance *     COERCION = Illegitimate power that persons do not accept *     AUTHORITY = Legitimate power that persons accept as “right” *     VIOLENCE = Force; Physical, emotional, spiritual hurt perpetrated against others *     CITIZENSHIP = All persons have basic rights by virtue of birth or residence; New concept in human history I.    Weber’s Ideal Types of Authority     A.    Traditional (based on custom)         i.    Prevalent in pre-literate groups where customs set relationships         ii.    As society changes, traditional authority is undermined but does not die (e.g., parental authority is traditional authority)     B.    Rational-Legal or Bureaucratic (based on written rules)         i.    Authority derives from the position one holds, not the individual         ii.    All are subject to the rules     C.    Charismatic (based on one’s personal following)         i.    Leader works outside existing political system so may pose threat to existing order         ii.    Often opposed by rational-legal authority II.    State claims monopoly on “legitimate” force in a society     A.    Violence is the ultimate foundation of political order     B.    Revolution is rejection of government’s claim to monopoly on violence Political Systems I.    US Political System:  Democracy in which authority derives from the people     A.    Winner-take-all elections     B.    Discourages minority parties     C.    Centrist Parties (both support fundamentals of US society such as freedom of religion, free public education, and capitalism)     D.    Stable system     E.    Current two-party system emerged after US Civil War:         i.    Democrats:  poor and working class persons/issues         ii.    Republicans:  persons who are financially better off         iii.    Third Parties:  play role but often have little public support (Nader 2000, Perot 1992-96, Anderson 1980)     * Individual politicians often cross party lines:  support philosophy of party but not necessarily all specific proposals II.    Other Democratic Systems:     A.    Proportional Representation (legislative seats divided according to proportion of votes each party receives)     B.    Encourages minority parties (can get access to media and have power beyond numbers)     C.    Noncentrist parties     D.    Less stable due to breakdowns among coalitions Voting Patterns in US I.    One-half of persons eligible vote for president; one-third of eligible voters vote for congresspersons II.    Percentage of persons who vote increases with age III.    Non-Hispanic Whites more likely than African Americans to vote -- Hispanics less likely than either IV.    Higher education = More likely to vote V.    Women slightly more likely than men to vote VI.    Greater stake in “the system” leads to greater likelihood of voting VII.    Persons rewarded by system feel more socially integrated, feel that elections affect their lives     A.    Greater alienation among persons who gain less from the system in terms of education, income, and jobs     B.    “Voter Apathy” is indifference/inaction regarding political process Who Rules in US? I.    Functionalist perspective     A.    Need to find balance between anarchy and repressive government     B.    Pluralism (diffusion of power among interest groups) prevents any one from gaining control, prevents government from turning against its citizens     C.    Systems of Checks and Balances and Separation of Powers balance interests:  no one branch of government becomes too dominant     D.    Power is widely dispersed as each group pursues its interests and is balanced by others pursuing theirs II.    Conflict perspective     A.    C.W. Mills:  power elite (heads of leading corporations, powerful leaders in armed forces, and certain elite politicians) rule in US -- Corporate heads are most powerful since all three view capitalism as essential to welfare of country     B.    William Domhoff:  ruling class (wealthiest and most powerful persons) run country; leaders chosen from this group of persons who promote the idea of meritocracy and that all have chance to become rich     C.    Ruling elite not always in complete unity III.    Convergence:  possible to have both middle level functionalism in politics (in which pluralism keeps checks and balances) and elites at the top pursuing particular special interests IV.    Special Interests:  Lobbyists and Political Action Committees (PACs)     A.    Major force in politics     B.    Solicit and spend money to influence legislation and bypass laws which limit contributions     C.    Average candidate for Senate spends $5 million >> indebted to persons financing campaign     D.    Criticism of PACs and Lobbyists:  money buys votes >> legislators supporting interests of special interest groups rather than electorate War     * War is the organized use of force against another people or nation; war is often a part of national policy     * Not characteristic of all human groups but is simply one way of settling conflict     * Frequency:  one war every 2 to 3 years from 150 BC to 1925; since 1850 US averages one war per year I.    Three essential conditions (Timasheff)     A.    Cultural tradition of war -- leaders see war as an option because they have fought in them before     B.    Antagonistic situation -- 2 or more states confronting incompatible objectives     C.    Some “fuel” heats the antagonistic situation which moves persons from thinking about war to engaging in it II.    Several varieties of warfare in human history     A.    Predatory warfare in which one tribe or band attacks another in order to steal herds, tools, weapons or take slave as in the Viking raids along England and France.     B.    Wars for colonial empire in which one people invades and imposes an exploitive system on a people; the Persian empire, the Roman Empire, the Incan Empire and the British Empire are examples.     C.    Wars of feudal conquest in which one petty noble conquers and rules several other 'kingdoms' in an area. Charlemagne consolidated the petty states of France into empire in the 11th century. Rule is direct through succession by birth.     D.    Wars of bourgeois revolution in which the middle classes overthrow the nobility and take state power as in England, France, the Americas and elsewhere.     E.    Wars of Capitalist Expansion. World Wars I & 11 can be understood as wars between capitalist states as each tried to solve its own problems of surplus population and crises at the expense of other states.     F.    Wars of socialist liberation in which there is an attempt to overthrow the capitalist/feudal state and take power on behalf of workers as in Russia (1917), China (1949), Cuba (1959), and Nicaragua (1979).     G.    Ethnic/Identity wars. These arise when times get bad and competition for scarce goods becomes bitter. At such times, the “struggle of existence” becomes reduced to individuals, families, tribes, ethnic groups and other such narrow groundings for identity. Racism and nationalism tend to flare and gender politics become more brutal leading to wars of “exclusion” or “purification.”     H.    Wars of Capitalist Consolidation. Globalized Capitalism can brook no interference with the free flow of raw materials (oil is the exemplar), with the free flow of goods, or with the free flow of profits. The current set of UN backed wars can be understood as the use of military force to put down all other kinds of war above. III.    War and its affect on morality     A.    Exposure to brutality and killing causes persons to dehumanize other persons     B.    Dehumanization helped along by transformation of war into struggle between “good” and “evil”     C.    Characteristics of dehumanization         i.    increased emotional distance from others         ii.    emphasis on followin